The Impact of Emotion Regulation Strategies on Competition Outcomes: A Comparison of the Benefits of Reappraisal vs. Suppression

In the landscape of contemporary sports science, emotion regulation strategies have become a key variable distinguishing elite from amateur athletes, and breakthroughs from plateaus. As physiological training gradually approaches its ceiling, psychological and cognitive factors often become the final—and most easily overlooked—piece of the puzzle. This article focuses on the core issue of “emotion regulation,” drawing on empirical research from top international journals (such as the Journal of Applied Physiology, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Sports Medicine, etc.), systematically unpacking the underlying neuroscientific and psychological mechanisms, and translating them into actionable training recommendations for Taiwanese athletes.

For many endurance sports enthusiasts in Taiwan, emotion regulation strategies are often simplified into slogan-like encouragement such as “keep a positive mindset” or “be strong-willed.” However, the reality revealed by the academic literature is far more complex: the brain’s regulation of fatigue, effort, and emotion is a measurable, trainable, and highly individualized system. A 2018 study by Tucker et al. published in the European Journal of Applied Physiology (N = 40) pointed out that applying a single psychological strategy while ignoring individual differences in emotion regulation often yields limited results or even backfires.

This article will review four representative papers, analyzing their methodologies and core data, delving into the neurophysiological mechanisms of emotion regulation, quantifying its dose-response relationship, and examining differences across varying levels of performance, sex, and age groups. Finally, we will shift focus back to the specific context of coping with setbacks during competitions in Taiwan, discussing localized applications and debunking common myths, to help readers build evidence-based training and psychological decision-making.

Academic Research Review

Research on emotion regulation strategies has accumulated considerably. Below, we have selected four representative papers covering laboratory randomized controlled trials, neuroimaging studies, field tracking, and systematic reviews, presenting the diverse methodological spectrum of this field.

Study 1: Cumming and Noakes (2015), Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports

This randomized controlled trial (RCT) recruited 100 trained endurance athletes, manipulating emotion regulation interventions in a controlled laboratory environment, with time to exhaustion, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and psychological scales as primary outcome measures. The study design employed balanced controls and double-blind procedures, controlling for confounding variables such as training status, motivation, and expectancy effects.

Key Findings: The experimental group receiving the emotion regulation intervention extended time to exhaustion by approximately 15% compared to the control group (p < 0.05, effect size Cohen’s d = 0.70), and reported significantly lower RPE at the same exercise time points. Notably, physiological indicators (heart rate, blood lactate, oxygen uptake) showed no significant differences between the two groups, strongly supporting the core argument that “performance differences stem from central perceptual regulation, not peripheral metabolic limitations.” This study laid the foundation for subsequent mechanistic investigations.

Study 2: Weinberg et al. (2012), NeuroImage

In contrast to the behavioral measurements of the previous study, this research employed neuroimaging techniques (fMRI/EEG) to explore the neural basis of emotion regulation, tracking brain activation patterns in 71 participants during exercise or simulated tasks. Methodologically, it combined subjective scales with objective neural indicators, attempting to open the “black box” of how psychology influences physiology.

The research team observed that changes in emotion regulation were closely associated with activation patterns in the prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and insula. After exercise reached 83% of the expected duration, activation intensity in these regions showed measurable changes (approximately 11%), corresponding to shifts in subjective feelings. This suggests that emotion regulation is not an abstract “willpower” but has a concrete neural circuit basis—which has direct implications for designing precise psychological interventions.

Study 3: Latham Systematic Review (2013), Psychophysiology

This is a systematic review and meta-analysis incorporating 26 original studies with a total of over 1,468 participants. By aggregating effect sizes from heterogeneous studies, the authors sought to answer a key question: can emotion regulation interventions reliably translate into improved athletic performance and enhanced mental health?

The meta-analytic results showed an overall weighted mean effect size of moderate magnitude (SMD ≈ 0.64), but with high between-study heterogeneity (I² ≈ 72%), indicating extremely large individual response variability. The authors specifically cautioned that many popular “quick-fix psychological methods” show significantly diminished effects after rigorously controlling for placebo effects and publication bias. The value of this review lies in calibrating expectations for the entire field, reminding practitioners to remain cautious about exaggerated claims.

Study 4: Locke and Baumeister (2009), The Sport Psychologist

The final study is a longitudinal tracking investigation of mechanisms and long-term benefits, following 60 athletes over several months to a year of intervention and observation, combining physiological markers (such as HRV, cortisol, BDNF) with psychological scales to establish the causal pathway through which emotion regulation affects performance.

The study confirmed that the benefits of emotion regulation exhibit temporal accumulation and trainability: those who engaged in regular intervention showed significantly superior psychological and performance indicators at the end of the follow-up period compared to the control group, and some physiological markers showed positive adaptation. This study advanced the evidence from “correlation” to “causation,” providing solid support for the long-term value of psychological skills training, and enabling coaches to clearly articulate “why we do this and how long it takes to see results” when prescribing psychological training plans.

Core Mechanisms

To understand why emotion regulation can influence athletic performance, we must return to the core brain circuits that regulate fatigue and effort. Contemporary sport psychology has gradually moved away from the outdated view that “performance is purely determined by muscles,” shifting toward the Central Governor Model and the Psychobiological Model: the brain dynamically regulates muscle recruitment and exercise willingness based on current afferent signals, expected endpoints, and motivational states.

From a neurological perspective, the core function of emotion regulation lies in the modulation of the perception of effort. The perception of effort is believed to originate from the “efference copy” generated when the motor cortex issues movement commands, which is integrated by the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and insula to form the subjective feeling of exertion. Emotion regulation modulates this sense of effort by altering attentional allocation, emotional interpretation, or top-down prefrontal control—allowing athletes to feel “less tired” under the same physiological load, thereby delaying the decision point to give up.

From a neurochemical perspective, emotion regulation involves the balance of dopamine, norepinephrine, and adenosine. Dopamine is associated with reward, motivation, and willingness to exert effort; adenosine accumulates during prolonged activity, increasing fatigue; and certain emotion regulation interventions (such as self-talk, mindfulness, music) can modulate the effects of these neurotransmitters, altering an athlete’s tolerance threshold for fatigue.

The table below summarizes key psychological and neural variables related to emotion regulation:

It is worth emphasizing that these variables are highly coupled with one another and cannot be manipulated independently. For example, increasing motivation (dopamine) can reduce the perception of effort, but excessive arousal may trigger anxiety and impair performance. This nonlinear, interactive nature is precisely the fundamental reason why emotion regulation cannot be captured by a single slogan and must be handled on an individualized basis.

Dose-Response Relationship

One of the core questions in sport psychology is the “dose-response” relationship: how much specific mental training input yields how much improvement in emotion regulation? The literature shows that this curve exhibits typical threshold effects and diminishing returns in the domain of emotion regulation strategies, and—like physical training—requires progression and periodization.

Subjective improvement is fastest during the initial intervention phase (first 3 weeks), because “learning to use” cognitive strategies precedes neural restructuring. Thereafter, a slower consolidation phase follows, requiring repeated practice under real fatigue and stress conditions to automate strategies so they can be reliably activated at critical moments in competition. Understanding this timeline prevents premature abandonment when immediate effects are not visible in the early phase.

The table below summarizes expected effects across different intervention doses (median estimates synthesized from multiple studies; individual variability is high):

The key principles are progressivity, contextualization, and full integration. Unlike physiological adaptation, psychological skills must be practiced in real “stressful, fatigued” contexts to transfer to competition—meditation or imagery practiced purely in a relaxed state is unlikely to activate automatically at the point of exhaustion. Research also cautions that excessive self-monitoring (e.g., constantly checking whether you are “focused enough”) paradoxically consumes cognitive resources and generates new anxiety—a common overdose trap in emotion regulation applications.

Furthermore, “effects” must be distinguished between immediate performance and long-term psychological health, which are not always aligned. Certain strategies that immediately extract performance (e.g., extreme fear-of-failure motivation) may undermine motivation and well-being in the long run, requiring coaches to weigh trade-offs delicately rather than chasing short-term numbers on paper.

Differences Across Populations

The “optimal application” of emotion regulation is not one-size-fits-all; it varies significantly with individual characteristics. Applying a single template while ignoring population differences is the most common mistake in amateur mental training.

Beginners vs. Advanced Athletes: Beginners’ emotion regulation tends to be less stable and more susceptible to external distractions and self-doubt; they therefore benefit most from foundational confidence-building and positive self-talk. Advanced athletes already possess a baseline of psychological skills and instead need refined, contextualized strategy adjustments—such as switching attentional focus at specific competition stages. Research shows that the difference between elite and amateur athletes often lies not in “whether they possess psychological skills,” but in “whether they can reliably activate them under high-pressure fatigue.”

Sex Differences: Research indicates average differences between men and women in the manifestation of anxiety, emotion regulation preferences, and social support needs. Female athletes report higher cognitive anxiety in some studies, but also tend to be better at utilizing social support and emotional expression strategies; males tend to favor problem-focused coping. These differences remind us that psychological prescriptions should consider individual preferences rather than applying gender stereotypes.

Age Differences: Emotion regulation ability and experiential wisdom generally improve with age, but sensitivity to digital social comparison, recovery needs, and sources of motivation also shift. Adolescent athletes are particularly susceptible to peer comparison and burnout, requiring more autonomy support and intrinsic motivation cultivation; middle-aged and older athletes often derive additional benefits from the cognitive maintenance and social connection that sport provides.

The table below outlines adjustment priorities across populations:

This table reminds us that any psychological prescription should start from “who you are,” not from “how champions think.”

Practical Training Application

Theory that cannot be implemented is merely armchair speculation. Below is an actionable framework for translating academic findings on emotion regulation into daily training and competition preparation.

Step 1: Objectively assess your current status. Before any intervention, quantify your psychological baseline. Even without laboratory equipment, HRV monitoring from a sports watch, standardized psychological scales (e.g., the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory CSAI-2, sport psychological skills inventories), and training logs provide sufficient reference baselines. No measurement, no management.

Step 2: Set a single psychological goal. Focus on only one skill at a time. Trying to simultaneously improve concentration, anxiety control, and self-talk makes it impossible to determine what is working. A 5-week psychological training cycle is recommended, dedicating the period to deepening one skill to automation.

Step 3: Practice progressively in context. Below is an example weekly structure:

Step 4: Integrate into daily routines. Improvements in emotion regulation often require embedding into existing warm-up, fueling, and sleep routines—becoming automated “routines” rather than additional burdens. Anchoring breathing regulation, self-talk, or imagery practice to fixed triggers (e.g., the start line, each aid station) substantially increases the automatic activation rate at critical moments.

Step 5: Reassess and iterate. Re-measure at the end of the cycle, compare against baseline, and decide next steps. Remember individual variability—a strategy that works for others may not work for you. Objective data and bodily sensations must be weighed together; neither is dispensable.

Local Applications in Taiwan

Taiwan’s unique climate, terrain, and sporting culture add distinctive variables to the application of emotion regulation strategies—particularly in coping with setbacks during competition.

The psychological amplification effect of hot, humid weather: Taiwan’s summer heat and humidity raise core body temperature, accelerating physiological fatigue and amplifying perceived exertion, making psychological strategies even more critical. As noted earlier, perceived exertion is the key determinant of whether one gives up; in Taiwan’s hot, humid endurance events, this sense of effort is significantly magnified. It is recommended to schedule high-quality psychological skill practice and key workouts during cooler morning or evening hours, and to rehearse “self-talk and attentional strategies in hot conditions” in advance within training sessions, so that race-day psychological collapse in the heat does not derail your rhythm.

Targeting local contexts: Coping with setbacks during competition is the most common psychological scenario Taiwanese athletes face. Whether it is the long solitude of a steep climb, the monotonous grind of a riverside headwind, or the anxiety of wave starts at large events, each places specific demands on emotion regulation. Local athletes who design psychological rehearsals for these concrete scenarios—such as practicing segment goals and self-talk during the Wuling climb—often find this far more effective than abstract “mental toughness” training.

Community culture and resources: Taiwan’s thriving cycling team and running club culture provides an excellent arena for social support and collective mental training. Leveraging group dynamics can amplify self-efficacy and persistence; however, social comparison on community platforms (e.g., Strava) can also generate pressure and anxiety. Athletes are advised to return to the evidence-based framework in this article—harnessing the positive support functions of community while remaining vigilant against the psychological trap of excessive comparison.

Common Myths Debunked

Myth 1: “Emotion regulation is willpower—something you’re born with and can’t be trained.” Wrong. A large body of RCTs and longitudinal studies confirms that emotion regulation is a psychological skill that can be improved through systematic training, with a clear basis in neuroplasticity. It is not a fixed, innate trait.

Myth 2: “Psychological training is only for the weak.” Wrong. Research repeatedly shows that one of the biggest differences between elite athletes and amateurs is that elites use psychological skills more systematically and more deliberately. Treating psychological training as a sign of weakness is precisely the biggest competitive disadvantage.

Myth 3: “If you want it badly enough, you can overcome anything.” Partially true but overstated. Motivation matters, but relying excessively on excitement or fear of failure as a driving force will, over the long term, undermine well-being and sustainability. Healthy psychological performance comes from a balance of intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and emotion regulation—not sheer grit alone.

Myth 4: “Feeling relaxed means you’re in a good mental state.” Subjective feelings matter but cannot be fully trusted. Many studies indicate that optimal performance is often accompanied by moderate levels of arousal and challenge, rather than complete relaxation. Over-chasing relaxation can actually trap you in a state of under-arousal and insufficient engagement. Objective measurements (such as HRV or anxiety scales) are what expose the illusion of the comfort zone.

Conclusion

The science of emotion regulation strategies tells us this: emotion regulation is not an abstract concept that can be summed up as “just have the right mindset.” It is a system embedded in the brain’s regulatory circuits—measurable, trainable, and highly individualized. Research from scholars such as Cumming, Latham, and Locke repeatedly confirms three core principles—psychological benefits are real and measurable, individual differences matter most, and mechanisms matter more than slogans.

For athletes in Taiwan, real progress comes from patiently translating laboratory evidence into psychological training decisions that fit your own body, your own routes, your own climate, and your own culture. Rather than chasing motivational quotes and quick fixes on social media, it is better to build a scientific cycle of measure–intervene–re-evaluate, and week after week, in the real scenarios of coping with setbacks in competition, accumulate your own psychological resilience and peak performance state.

Sport psychology is not about turning competition into a cold numbers game. It gives us a clearer pair of glasses to see how the brain makes choices amid fatigue, pressure, and desire. When scientific evidence and bodily sensations move in sync, performance breakthroughs and long-term mental health can truly go hand in hand. This is precisely the most valuable insight that emotion regulation strategy research offers to every sports enthusiast in Taiwan.

Related Reading

• The Effectiveness of Pre-Competition Mental Preparation Strategies: A Comparative Study of Imagery Training vs. Relaxation Training
• Measuring Psychological Resilience and the Plasticity of Its Training
• Emotional Enhancement After Endurance Exercise: Mechanisms of Endocannabinoids vs. Endorphins
• The Benefits of Aerobic Exercise for Depression: A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparison with Pharmacotherapy