Movement Economy: Who Uses Less Energy at the Same Fitness Level—The Science of Efficiency in Running, Cycling, and Swimming, and How to Improve It

Opening: Two People with the Same VO2max, Yet Nearly Ten Minutes Apart

I once coached a fascinating pair of students—let’s call them A-Jhe and A-Hong. Both underwent maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) testing in the lab, and their numbers were almost identical, both landing around 58 ml/kg/min. By that logic, with the same “engine displacement,” their performances should have been similar. Yet at the Taipei Marathon that year, A-Jhe finished in 3 hours 21 minutes, while A-Hong crossed the line at 3 hours 30 minutes—the same engine, nearly ten minutes faster.

Many people would immediately blame “how they felt that day” or “pacing mistakes,” and those certainly play a role. But when I laid out their oxygen uptake at the same speed (e.g., exactly 5:00 per kilometer), the answer emerged: at the same pace, A-Jhe consumed only about 92% of the oxygen A-Hong did per minute. In other words, over the same course at the same speed, A-Jhe was more “fuel-efficient.” This ability to be fuel-efficient is the star of today’s discussion—exercise economy—known in the running world as running economy (RE).

I often tell my athletes: “VO2max determines how big your engine is; economy determines how many kilometers per liter your car gets.” Two cars with equal horsepower—one getting 10 km/L and the other 13 km/L—will show a staggering difference over a long haul. And the good news is that economy is more improvable through training than VO2max. That’s also why elite athletes, whose VO2max has long plateaued in their later careers, can still keep improving their performances.

In this article, I’ll break down the economy of running, cycling, and swimming in full: what determines it, what can be changed, what can’t, and a training path you can start following today.

Concepts and Scientific Foundations: What Is “Economy”

A One-Sentence Definition

Economy refers to: the energy required for the body to perform the same amount of work at a given submaximal intensity. In running, it’s usually measured as “oxygen uptake at a fixed pace”—at the same 12 km/h, a lower oxygen uptake means greater economy. Academically, running economy is described as a “multifactorial” concept—the combined expression of metabolic, cardiorespiratory, biomechanical, and neuromuscular characteristics at submaximal speeds (see the Barnes & Kilding review in the references).

Cycling, on the other hand, is commonly measured using gross efficiency (GE)—that is, “mechanical work done per minute ÷ calories expended per minute,” expressed as a percentage. A typical well-trained cyclist’s gross efficiency falls between 18% and 23%—yes, no matter how hard you push the pedals, only about one-fifth of your energy becomes forward motion; the rest dissipates as heat, which is also why summer riding feels so hot.

Swimming’s economy is the most unique, because the main opponent isn’t gravity but water resistance. It’s commonly measured as “energy cost at a given swimming speed,” and technique (reducing drag, increasing propulsive efficiency) carries far more weight in swimming than in running or cycling.

Where Energy Comes From, and Where It Leaks

To understand “saving effort,” you first need to understand the flow of energy. The carbohydrates and fats you eat are converted into ATP through aerobic metabolism in your muscle mitochondria—the body’s universal energy currency. The problem is that this conversion process itself involves massive losses—the human body’s overall efficiency in converting chemical energy into mechanical work is only around 20%, with the vast majority becoming heat. That’s why exercise generates heat and requires sweating to cool down.

People with poor economy have more “leaks” where energy escapes. In running, for example, energy leaks in several places: excessive vertical bouncing (lifting the body too high with every step), braking losses upon landing, extraneous lateral sway and torso rotation, and co-contraction of muscles (antagonists unnecessarily firing together). Each item alone seems minor, but together they add up significantly. The essence of economy training is plugging these energy leaks one by one.

Here’s a concept that’s often overlooked: optimal energy distribution is also part of economy. In the same marathon, if you go out too fast and push the body into anaerobic territory early, accumulating lactate, the second half is not only slower but also especially energy-draining—because under fatigue, your movement patterns degrade and become less efficient. So “steady pacing” is itself an economy strategy, which is why I always stress: better to be conservative in the first half.

Why Economy Matters So Much

Endurance performance can be roughly broken down into three pillars:

1. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max): the ceiling of your aerobic engine.
2. Lactate/ventilatory threshold: how high a proportion of engine output you can sustain without “blowing up.”
3. Economy: how much fuel you use for the same output.

Among these three, VO2max has a high genetic component and hits its training ceiling quickly; threshold and economy offer far more training headroom. Economy is especially fascinating because it integrates a host of factors—“how muscles contract, how tendons store and release elastic energy, how posture is set, how cadence is managed, how many mitochondria you have”—and optimizing any single link could let you run faster at the same heart rate (bpm), or feel easier at the same speed.

Comparing the Determinants of Economy Across Three Sports

Sport	Primary Resistance	Technique Weight	Key Determinants	Ease of Improvement
Running	Gravity (each step’s landing and propulsion)	Medium	Tendon stiffness, cadence, body weight, shoes, muscle oxidative capacity	Medium
Cycling	Air resistance + rolling resistance	Medium-low	Type I muscle fiber percentage, cadence, aerodynamic position, power-to-weight ratio	Medium (position can improve quickly)
Swimming	Water resistance (wave + form + friction)	Extremely high	Body streamlining, stroke propulsion efficiency, kick timing, feel for the water	High (but the ceiling is also the highest)

Looking at this table, one key point emerges: the more “technique-driven” the sport, the greater the room for improving economy—but the more patience it requires. A swimming beginner who simply levels out their body position and reduces sinking might double their economy; whereas no matter how much you adjust your running form, improvements are usually in the single-digit percentages.

Running Economy: Determinants and Improvement Paths

Breaking Down the Determinants

Research on running economy is extensive, and overall, the following categories of factors are most critical:

1. The “Spring” Properties of Tendons and Muscles

Running is very much a series of bounces. On landing, the Achilles tendon and calf tendons stretch and store elastic potential energy, which is released during push-off. The better this “free energy recovery” works, the more efficient you are. Research indicates that muscle-tendon stiffness and the ability to store and release elastic energy are important determinants of running economy. This also explains why heavy strength training can improve running economy—it makes tendons stiffer and elastic recoil more efficient, rather than turning you into a bodybuilder.

2. Cadence and Stride Length

Studies find that a higher cadence is generally associated with better economy, because excessive overstriding places the foot ahead of the center of mass, creating a braking effect and wasting energy. A very common mistake among Taiwanese runners is “lengthening the stride” when trying to run faster—only to find themselves getting more tired the more they do it.

3. Body Weight and Composition

Running is an anti-gravity sport; every step lifts your body weight. For every bit of weight you lose, oxygen uptake at the same pace drops. This isn’t an endorsement of extreme weight loss (which harms strength and immunity), but rather a note that, within a healthy range, excess non-functional body weight is indeed a burden on economy.

4. Muscle Fibers and Mitochondria

Muscles with high oxidative capacity (more mitochondria, denser capillaries) can produce energy more efficiently. This requires long-term aerobic accumulation training to develop.

5. External Factors: Shoes and Terrain

The reason “carbon-plated super shoes” of recent years can improve race times is fundamentally about improving running economy—through midsole rebound and a stiff plate that reduces energy loss. Studies show these shoes can improve economy by an average of several percentage points, which at marathon scale translates to several minutes.

Running Economy Training Menu

Here’s a weekly economy-building framework I often give advanced athletes (assuming 5 running days per week):

Training Item	Frequency	Content	Primary Factor Improved
Heavy strength	2x per week	Squats, deadlifts, single-leg squats, 3-5 reps x 4-5 sets, intensity 80%+ 1RM	Tendon stiffness, elastic recoil
Plyometrics	1-2x per week	Jump rope, box jumps, quick reactive jumps, volume increasing gradually	Landing stiffness, neural recruitment
Cadence metronome drills	1x per week	Run at 175-185 spm with a metronome, 4-6 sets x 3 minutes	Cadence, reduced braking
Short hill sprints	1x per week	8-10% grade, sprint 8-12 seconds x 6-10 reps, full recovery	Neuromuscular recruitment, strength
Long aerobic run	1x per week	Easy pace, extended to 90-150 minutes	Mitochondria, capillaries, oxidative capacity

Key reminder: Strength training typically takes 6-12 weeks to produce noticeable improvements in economy, and it must be heavy, low-rep to work; if you use light dumbbells for 20-rep “endurance-style” sets, the economy benefits will be diminished. This is a common runner’s misconception—assuming runners should use light weights and high reps for strength work, when the opposite is true for improving economy.

Cycling Economy: Efficiency, Cadence, and Position

Breaking Down the Determinants

The determinants of cycling economy (gross efficiency) overlap somewhat with running, but also have unique aspects:

1. Muscle Fiber Composition

This is a fascinating point about cycling efficiency: research finds that differences in pedaling efficiency among highly trained cyclists are related to the percentage of Type I (slow-twitch) muscle fibers—those with a higher proportion of slow-twitch fibers achieve higher mechanical efficiency at typical pedaling cadences (60-120 rpm). Part of this is genetic, but long-term endurance training can also shift muscle fiber characteristics toward a more oxidative profile.

2. Cadence

The effect of cadence on efficiency varies by individual. Some studies indicate that people with a higher percentage of slow-twitch fibers are more efficient at higher cadences. In practice, most amateur cyclists’ “most efficient cadence” is actually lower than what they’re used to—many love spinning fast and light at 95-100 rpm, but from a pure energy-efficiency standpoint, 80-90 rpm is often more economical. However, cadence also involves fatigue and muscle load distribution, so you can’t look at efficiency alone; it requires an overall trade-off.

3. Aerodynamic Position

This is the biggest difference between cycling and running. Above 30 km/h, air resistance becomes the primary opponent, and drag increases with the square of speed. At the same power (watts), tucking lower and narrowing your profile can noticeably increase speed—this doesn’t change your body’s efficiency, but rather the resistance you have to fight. For Taiwan’s beloved climbing routes like the west approach to Wuling, air resistance matters little and power-to-weight ratio is king; but on flats and descents, position is free speed.

4. Power-to-Weight Ratio (W/kg)

When climbing, your main opponent is gravity, and power-to-weight ratio directly determines climbing speed. That’s why top climbers tend to be lean.

Cycling Economy Optimization Checklist

Aspect	Specific Actions	Expected Effect
Aerodynamics	Get a professional bike fit; practice riding on the drops and tucking elbows	1-2 km/h faster on flats at the same power
Cadence	Use a power meter + cadence sensor for an “efficiency test” to find your most economical gear	Less effort on long cruises
Strength	Heavy squats + low-cadence, high-torque intervals	Improved pedal force efficiency
Aerobic base	Plenty of Zone 2 long rides	More mitochondria, better fat utilization
Weight management	Control body fat within a healthy range; don’t force it off-season	Improved climbing W/kg

A note for the Taiwan context: In summer, heat dissipation directly affects the power you can sustain. Taiwan’s humid heat often pushes perceived temperatures above 35°C; if hydration and cooling aren’t managed well, even great economy won’t show. On long rides, bring enough electrolytes and don’t wait until you’re thirsty to drink.

Long-Ride Nutrition Reference (Illustrative Ranges, Not Medical Prescription)

Below are rough nutrition ranges I give athletes for long rides. Actual needs vary greatly by individual, weather, and intensity—treat these as a starting point and adjust:

Item	Approximate Range	Notes
Fluids	~500-1000 ml per hour	Upper end in humid heat, lower end in cool weather
Carbohydrates	~30-90 g per hour	Above 60 g, consider mixing different carbohydrate sources
Sodium	~300-700 mg per hour	Upper end for heavy sweaters or cramp-prone athletes
Caffeine	Conservative, based on individual tolerance	Avoid if sensitive to caffeine or have heart rhythm issues

This table reminds us of one thing: nutrition itself is an “economy strategy.” If you don’t take in enough carbohydrates, liver glycogen depletes in the later stages, the body is forced to rely more on fat, output drops, form degrades, and economy collapses. Keep the fuel tank full, and all the fuel-efficiency you trained for actually matters.

Swimming Economy: Technique Is Everything

Why Swimming Is the Most Unique

If running and cycling economy is an “engine and drivetrain” problem, swimming is a “hull design” problem. Water is about 800 times denser than air, creating enormous resistance, and drag increases with the square of speed or even more steeply. This means: the faster you swim, the more disproportionately your effort skyrockets. So the most energy-saving path in swimming is always, first and foremost, reducing drag, with increasing propulsion coming second.

There are three types of drag:

1. Form drag: The body isn’t horizontal enough, hips sink, and the frontal cross-sectional area increases. This is the biggest leak for beginners.
2. Wave drag: Waves created by swimming too hard or lifting the head too high.
3. Skin friction: Friction between skin, swimsuit, and water. This is the hardest for most people to change and has the smallest impact.

Swimming Economy Improvement Priority

Priority	Technical Focus	Why It Matters
First	Body horizontal, core stable, hips not sinking	Directly eliminates the largest source of form drag
Second	Hand catch and pull path (avoid slipping through the water)	Increases distance per stroke
Third	Breathing without breaking streamline, stable head position	Reduces wave drag and rhythm disruption
Fourth	Kick timing coordinated (efficient, not frantic)	Legs are large muscle groups with high oxygen demand; kicking wildly wastes energy
Fifth	Balance between stroke rate and stroke length	Find your personal most efficient rhythm

Swimming has a harsh but fair truth: no matter how good your fitness, poor technique means you can’t save energy. I’ve seen tough guys who can run a sub-3:30 marathon gasping like they just sprinted after swimming 400 meters, simply because their bodies were fighting the water’s resistance the whole way. So for swimming economy, I almost always start from the most basic things like “floating and streamlining,” and it requires lots of “deliberate slow swimming”—confirming every movement is correct at a very slow pace is far more useful than charging ahead.

In practice, I like using a few simple technical drills to refine economy, all doable at any community sports center pool:

• Kickboard float check: Hold a kickboard and kick, feeling whether your hips sink and whether your body is horizontal. This is the most direct check for cutting form drag.
• Side balance (six-beat side drift): Trains body roll and streamlining, so every stroke is propelled in the least-drag position.
• Sculling: Draw small figure-eights with your hands in the water to develop the “feel” of catching water, avoiding slipping through empty strokes.
• Stroke count: Count how many strokes it takes to swim one 25-meter length. Fewer strokes at the same speed is objective evidence of improved economy.

I want to emphasize the concept of “distance per stroke, not stroke rate”: many people think swimming faster means moving your arms faster, but in reality, elite swimmers “push farther with each stroke.” Covering the same distance with fewer strokes is the direction of efficiency. This principle is actually the same as “don’t overstride” in running and “find your most efficient cadence” in cycling—three sports, one common thread: maximize forward progress with minimal movement.

Common Mistakes and Corrections

After coaching for so many years, I could compile the economy-related mistakes into a “common case file”:

Mistake 1: Believing Economy Only Improves by “Running More”

Training volume is certainly foundational—research does list cumulative training volume as one of the most important factors in running economy. But many people plateau because they only pile on volume without doing strength or technique work. Correction: on top of your aerobic base, add heavy strength and plyometric training to open another improvement pathway.

Mistake 2: Doing Strength Training in the Wrong Direction

As mentioned earlier, improving economy requires heavy weight, low reps, not light weight, high reps. Correction: under the guidance of a coach or experienced person, gradually increase the intensity of major movements (squats, deadlifts), prioritizing movement quality and progressive overload.

Mistake 3: Drastically Changing Form and Becoming Less Efficient

Some runners watch videos and “overhaul their running form,” only to disrupt their automatic movement patterns, causing economy to drop in the short term rather than improve. Key concept: a change that saves energy for one person may cost energy for another—because everyone’s other physiological and mechanical conditions differ (a point the literature explicitly cautions about). Correction: make form adjustments small and gradual, give the nervous system time to re-automatize, and verify objectively with “whether heart rate at the same pace drops,” rather than going by feel.

Mistake 4: Overstriding

Trying to run faster by lengthening the stride results in the foot landing ahead of the center of mass, creating a braking effect. Correction: use a metronome to train cadence, focusing on “landing the foot directly beneath the body” rather than “reaching forward.”

Mistake 5: Only Training Pedaling, Ignoring Aerodynamics

Many cyclists spend big money upgrading wheels to save fractions of a second, yet ride in a wildly unaerodynamic position, eating a huge amount of extra wind resistance. Correction: get a bike fit first—position is nearly free speed.

Mistake 6: Using Brute Force to Overcome Water Resistance

The harder you swim, the higher you lift your head, the more waves you make, the more drag—a vicious cycle. Correction: prioritize body levelness and relaxation, putting “drag reduction” ahead of “propulsion increase.”

Mistake 7: Training Through Inflammation or Soreness

Some research notes that exercise-induced muscle damage (e.g., delayed-onset soreness after heavy downhill running) can temporarily worsen running economy—when you’re sore, your movement patterns change and become more energy-draining. Correction: schedule adequate recovery; don’t force economy workouts while severely sore—results suffer and injury risk rises.

Actionable Advice for Readers at Different Levels

Beginners (Less Than One Year of Training)

• Build an aerobic base first: regular, easy, conversational pace, gradually accumulating volume—this is the foundation of all economy.
• Learn technique before pushing intensity: especially in swimming—find a coach to nail down the basics rather than flailing on your own for three months.
• One simple strength session per week: bodyweight squats, lunges, core—learn the movements and build a strength foundation first; heavy weights come later.
• Don’t rush to change form: let your body get familiar with the sport first; economy will partially improve naturally with training volume.

Intermediate (1-3 Years of Regular Training)

• Introduce heavy strength training: 2x per week, focusing on squats and deadlifts—this is the highest ROI method for improving economy at this stage.
• Add plyometrics and short hill sprints: train neuromuscular elasticity and recruitment.
• Get one professional assessment: cadence testing for running, bike fit and cadence efficiency testing for cycling, video analysis of streamlining for swimming.
• Verify with objective data: is heart rate at the same pace, or speed at the same power, trending in the right direction with training?

Advanced (Consistent Race Results, Looking to Break Through Ceilings)

• Fine-tune individual weaknesses: at this point VO2max may be near its ceiling, making economy the biggest area of opportunity.
• Calculate equipment benefits precisely: carbon-plated shoes, aero setups, swimsuits—these show clear marginal gains only when you’re already strong.
• Periodize and integrate: fit strength, plyometrics, technique, and sport-specific aerobic work into a periodized plan to avoid interference.
• Watch recovery and overtraining: the closer you are to your limits, the more recovery becomes the deciding factor; training through soreness only lowers economy.

Golden Principles for All Three Levels

Principle	Explanation
Foundation before gimmicks	Aerobic volume and basic technique are prerequisites for all economy
Progressive, not aggressive	Form, load, and volume must progress gradually, giving the body time to adapt
Data over feelings	Changes in oxygen uptake/heart rate at the same intensity are the real evidence of economy improvement
Individualize	What works for others may not work for you; experiment to find your own optimal solution

A Real-World Case: A-Hong’s Nine Months

Back to A-Hong, who lost by ten minutes at the start. We didn’t try to push his VO2max higher (he was nearly at his ceiling on that front); instead, we focused on economy. The approach was straightforward:

• Weeks 1-8: Stabilized his running volume, added two heavy squat and deadlift sessions per week, gradually increasing intensity.
• Weeks 9-16: Added one weekly short hill sprint session and one plyometric session, while using a metronome to bring his low cadence from about 168 up to around 178.
• Weeks 17-36: Integrated all of the above into his marathon cycle, with repeated reminders about his overstriding—“land your foot beneath your body.”

Nine months later, retesting showed his oxygen uptake at exactly 5:00/km had dropped by about 7%—not from a bigger engine, but from the same engine becoming more fuel-efficient. The following year at the same Taipei Marathon, he ran 3 hours 18 minutes, beating A-Jhe this time. A-Hong later said something I really liked: “Turns out getting faster doesn’t have to mean breathing harder—it can mean the same breathing, but running faster.” That sentence captures the essence of economy training.

Below is a table of A-Hong’s key metrics before and after training, so you can get a concrete sense of what economy improvement looks like (figures are case approximations, not precise experimental values, for illustrative direction only):

Metric	Before Training	After Nine Months	Direction of Change
Oxygen uptake at 5:00/km	Baseline	~7% lower	More fuel-efficient
Cadence (spm)	~168	~178	Reduced braking effect
Max squat strength	Moderate	Significantly improved	Better tendon stiffness, elastic recoil
Marathon time	3:30	3:18	12 minutes faster
VO2max	~58	Nearly unchanged	Improvement not from a bigger engine

The key point of this table is the last row: his VO2max barely moved, yet his performance improved by a full twelve minutes. That’s the power of economy—it gives you an entire additional path forward even after your engine has maxed out.

Practical Considerations for Taiwan

The science of economy applies everywhere, but to ground it in Taiwan’s daily life, a few more things are worth highlighting.

The hidden tax of humid heat: Taiwan’s summers are hot and humid, and with poor heat dissipation, the body must devote extra cardiac output to sending blood to the skin for cooling—essentially levying a hidden tax on your “fuel economy.” Heart rate at the same pace in 35°C humid heat will be noticeably higher than in cooler conditions. So in summer training, evaluating economy by “pace at the same heart rate” can be misleading; schedule high-intensity workouts for early morning or evening, and extend your heat-acclimatization period.

Energy intake for those who eat out: Eating out is convenient in Taiwan, but to support the recovery needed for economy training, protein intake often falls short. After training, aim for adequate quality protein (e.g., an extra egg or chicken breast with your bento, a glass of unsweetened soy milk or fresh milk), paired with enough carbohydrates to replenish glycogen, so strength and tendon adaptations can keep up. Don’t skimp on fluids and electrolytes during long sessions, especially with heavy summer sweating.

Using common local venues: For hill sprints and plyometrics, Taiwan actually has plenty of resources—embankment slopes along riverside parks, stadium stairs next to school tracks, and gentle community hills all work. For climbing and aero work on the bike, the north has Fengguizui and Yangmingshan, and central Taiwan has the classic west approach to Wuling. For swimming, make use of community sports center pools; off-peak hours are less crowded and best for the focused technical slow swimming.

Medical and testing resources: Taiwan’s National Health Insurance offers excellent accessibility. If you want a more precise understanding of your economy and physiological status, consider testing at a hospital or sports science center with an exercise physiology lab. If you have cardiovascular risk factors, getting a check-up at a cardiology or family medicine clinic before starting high-intensity training is a conservative and smart move.

FAQ

Q: Which is more important, economy or VO2max?
A: Both matter, but for those with an existing training base, economy is often the area with more room for improvement. VO2max is engine size; economy is fuel efficiency. You need both.

Q: Will strength training make me heavier and slower?
A: Strength training focused on heavy weight, low reps primarily improves neural recruitment and tendon elasticity; it typically doesn’t significantly increase muscle mass, and instead makes you more efficient. What you should really worry about is not doing any strength training at all.

Q: Are carbon-plated shoes cheating?
A: They’re a legal, evidence-based aid to economy, reducing energy loss through midsole rebound and a stiff plate. But they’re not a magic bullet, can’t replace fitness and technique, and their effects vary from person to person.

Q: I train all three triathlon disciplines—how should I allocate time for economy?
A: Prioritize time for the sport where your “technical gap” is largest, which is usually swimming. Swimming has the highest ceiling for economy improvement and the best return on investment.

Q: How long until I see results from improving economy?
A: Strength-driven economy improvements typically take 6-12 weeks; technical improvements (especially in swimming) may show single-session gains faster, but stabilizing them requires much longer repeated practice.

Q: Can I still improve economy as I get older?
A: Yes. Many determinants of economy (tendon stiffness, technique, movement efficiency) have training headroom at every age. Middle-aged and older athletes should place even more emphasis on strength training, because strength naturally declines with age, and strength is the foundation of elastic recoil and efficiency. Just be sure to progress gradually and discuss with your doctor if you have chronic conditions.

Q: I just want to exercise for health, not race. Do I need to care about economy?
A: Actually, you need it even more. Better economy means the same activity feels easier, is more sustainable long-term, and is less likely to exhaust you into quitting. For anyone trying to build a regular exercise habit, “the more efficient you get, the more you want to move” is a very positive cycle.

Q: Is treadmill economy the same as road running economy?
A: Not exactly. Treadmills have no air resistance and slightly different ground feedback, usually making them a bit “artificially easier.” For accurately assessing and training economy, prioritize actual road running, using the treadmill as a supplement or a substitute for bad weather.

Conclusion: Make the Same Effort Go Further

The most fascinating thing about economy is that it combines “effort” with “intelligence.” VO2max has its ceiling, but “how to maximize the same amount of effort” has almost no limit—it integrates your tendons, your posture, your technique, your equipment, and optimizing any single link feeds back into your performance.

I often tell my athletes: don’t just ask “how hard do I need to train,” but also ask “is this effort being spent where it counts.” At the same heart rate, the same level of breathlessness, if you can run faster, ride farther, and swim smoother—that’s the true compound interest of training. May we all become people who are “equally fit, yet more efficient.”

If you have a chronic condition (such as diabetes, hypertension, or heart disease) or a history of sports injuries, be sure to discuss with your physician and get an individualized assessment before starting any new training program. Medication and exercise intensity should follow your primary care physician’s recommendations. Taiwan’s healthcare is convenient and accessible through NHI; making good use of sports medicine clinics or rehabilitation departments for a full assessment is a worthwhile investment.

This article is educational content and cannot replace individual diagnosis and treatment advice from a physician, physical therapist, or nutritionist.

References

• Barnes & Kilding, Running economy: measurement, norms, and determining factors (PMC): https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4555089/
• Cycling efficiency is related to the percentage of Type I muscle fibers (PubMed): https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1501563/
• Relationship between efficiency and pedal rate in cycling: significance of internal power and muscle fiber type composition (PubMed): https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16805781/
• Effect of Strength Training Programs in Middle- and Long-Distance Runners’ Economy (systematic review with meta-analysis, PMC): https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11052887/
• Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Running Economy in Humans (PMC): https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3575608/

Related Reading

• Same VO2max, Why Is He Faster Than You? A Complete Breakdown of Exercise Economy: Where Running, Cycling, and Swimming Differ in Efficiency
• Running Economy Training: Same Cardio, Faster Pace
• Running Economy in Road Running: How to Reduce Oxygen Cost at the Same Speed
• Running Economy: Why People with the Same VO2max Have Very Different Results